Heap vs. Stack for Delphi Developers

Store versus Stack for Delphi Developers Call the capacity DoStackOverflow once from your code and youll get the EStackOverflow blunder raised by Delphi with the message stack flood. ​function DoStackOverflow : integer;begin result : 1 DoStackOverflow;end; What is this stack and why there is a flood there utilizing the code above? Along these lines, the DoStackOverflow work is recursively calling itself without a leave system it just continues turning and never exits. A handy solution, you would do, is to clear the conspicuous bug you have, and guarantee the capacity exists sooner or later (so your code can keep executing from where you have called the capacity). You proceed onward, and you never think back, not thinking about the bug/exemption as it is presently settled. However, the inquiry remains: what is this stack and why would that be a flood? Memory in Your Delphi Applications At the point when you begin programming in Delphi, you may encounter bug like the one above, you would unravel it and proceed onward. This one is identified with memory designation. More often than not you would not think about memory portion as long as you free what you make. As you acquire involvement with Delphi, you begin making your own classes, start up them, care about memory the board and the same. You will arrive at where you will peruse, in the Help, something like Local factors (proclaimed inside techniques and capacities) live in an applications stack. and furthermore Classes are reference types, so they are not replicated on task, they are passed by reference, and they are apportioned on the pile. Things being what they are, what is stack and what is pile? Stack versus Store Running your application on Windows, there are three territories in the memory where your application stores information: worldwide memory, pile, and stack. Worldwide factors (their qualities/information) are put away in the worldwide memory. The memory for worldwide factors is held by your application when the program starts and remains designated until your program ends. The memory for worldwide factors is called information section. Since worldwide memory is just once distributed and liberated at program end, we couldn't care less about it in this article. Stack and load are the place dynamic memory distribution happens: when you make a variable for a capacity, when you make an example of a class when you send boundaries to a capacity and use/pass its outcome esteem. What Is Stack? At the point when you pronounce a variable inside a capacity, the memory required to hold the variable is designated from the stack. You just compose var x: number, use x in your capacity, and when the capacity exits, you couldn't care less about memory distribution nor liberating. At the point when the variable leaves scope (code leaves the capacity), the memory which was taken on the stack is liberated. The stack memory is apportioned powerfully utilizing the LIFO (rearward in first out) approach. In Delphi programs, stack memory is utilized by Nearby daily practice (technique, method, work) variables.Routine boundaries and return types.Windows API work calls.Records (this is the reason you don't need to expressly make an example of a record type). You don't need to expressly free the memory on the stack, as the memory is auto-mysteriously apportioned for you when you, for instance, proclaim a nearby factor to a capacity. At the point when the capacity exits (now and then even before because of Delphi compiler advancement) the memory for the variable will be auto-mystically liberated. Stack memory size is, naturally, huge enough for your (as intricate as they seem to be) Delphi programs. The Maximum Stack Size and Minimum Stack Size qualities on the Linker choices for your task determine default esteems in 99.99% you would not have to change this. Think about a stack as a heap of memory squares. At the point when you proclaim/utilize a nearby factor, Delphi memory director will pick the square from the top, use it, and when not, at this point required it will be returned back to the stack. Having neighborhood variable memory utilized from the stack, nearby factors are not instated when announced. Pronounce a variable var x: number in some capacity and simply have a go at perusing the worth when you enter the capacity x will have some peculiar non-zero worth. Along these lines, consistently instate (or set worth) to your neighborhood factors before you read their worth. Because of LIFO, stack (memory allotment) tasks are quick as just a couple of activities (push, pop) are required to deal with a stack. What Is Heap? A pile is an area of memory where progressively designated memory is put away. At the point when you make an example of a class, the memory is apportioned from the pile. In Delphi programs, pile memory is utilized by/when Making an occurrence of a class.Creating and resizing dynamic arrays.Explicitly designating memory utilizing GetMem, FreeMem, New and Dispose().Using ANSI/wide/Unicode strings, variations, interfaces (oversaw consequently by Delphi). Stack memory has no decent format where there would be some request is dispensing squares of memory. Stack seems as though a container of marbles. Memory allotment from the stack is irregular, a square from here than a square from that point. In this way, load activities are a piece more slow than those on the stack. At the point when you request another memory square (for example make a case of a class), Delphi memory director will deal with this for you: youll get another memory square or an utilized and disposed of one. The store comprises of all virtual memory (RAM and plate space). Physically Allocating Memory Since about memory is clear, you can securely (by and large) overlook the abovementioned and just keep composing Delphi programs as you did yesterday. Obviously, you ought to know about when and how to physically designate/free memory. The EStackOverflow (from the earliest starting point of the article) was raised in light of the fact that with each call to DoStackOverflow another fragment of memory has been utilized from the stack and stack has restrictions. As basic as that.

Foundation’s Edge CHAPTER THREE HISTORIAN

Student of history Janov Pelorat was white-haired and his face, in rest, looked rather unfilled. It was rarefy in anything besides rest. He was of normal stature and weight and would in general move without scurry and to talk with consultation. He appeared to be extensively more seasoned than his fifty-two years. He had never left Terminus, something that was generally uncommon, particularly for one of his calling. He himself didn't know whether his stationary ways were a direct result of †or regardless of †his fixation on history. The fixation had happened upon him out of nowhere at fifteen years old while, during some indisposition, he was given a book of early legends. In it, he found the rehashed theme of a world that was separated from everyone else and detached †a world that was not even mindful of its seclusion, since it had known nothing else. His indisposition started to clear up on the double. Inside two days, he had perused the book multiple times and was up. The day after that he was at his work station, checking for any records that the Terminus University Library may have on comparable legends. It was correctly such legends that had involved him from that point forward. The Terminus University Library had in no way, shape or form been an extraordinary asset in this regard in any case, when he developed more seasoned, he found the delights of interlibrary credits. He had printouts in his ownership which had been taken off hyper-radiational signals from as distant as Ifnia. He had become a teacher of antiquated history and was currently starting his first vacation †one for which he had applied with traveling through space (his first) to Trantor itself †thirty after seven years. Pelorat was very mindful that it was generally abnormal for an individual of Terminus to have never been in space. It had never been his goal to be outstanding in this specific way. It was only that at whatever point he may have gone into space, some new book, some new investigation, some new examination came his direction. He would postpone his anticipated outing until he had wrung the new issue dry and had included, if conceivable, one all the more thing of certainty, or theory, or creative mind to the mountain he had gathered. At long last, his lone lament was that the specific excursion to Trantor had never been made. Trantor had been the capital of the First Galactic Empire. It had been the seat of Emperors for twelve thousand years and, before that, the capital of one of the most significant pre-Imperial realms, which had, gradually, caught or in any case ingested different realms to set up the Empire. Trantor had been a world-supporting city, a metal-covered city. Pelorat had perused of it in progress of Gaal Dornick, who had visited it in the hour of Hari Seldon himself. Dornick's volume did not circle anymore and the one Pelorat possessed may have been sold for a large portion of the student of history's yearly pay. A proposal that he may leave behind it would have stunned the history specialist. Obviously, what Pelorat thought about, most definitely, was the Galactic Library, which in Imperial occasions (when it was the Imperial Library) had been the biggest in the Galaxy. Trantor was the capital of the biggest and most crowded Empire mankind had ever observed. It had been a solitary overall city with a populace well more than forty billion, and its Library had been the accumulated record of all the inventive (and not really innovative) work of mankind, the full synopsis of its information. Also, it was completely automated in so unpredictable a way that it took specialists to deal with the PCs. What was more, the Library had endure. To Pelorat, that was the stunning thing about it. When Trantor had fallen and been sacked, almost more than two centuries prior, it had experienced shocking demolition, and the stories of human hopelessness and demise would not endure rehashing †yet the Library had endure, ensured (it was said) by the University understudies, who utilized astutely conceived weapons. (Some idea the resistance by the understudies may well have been completely romanticized.) Regardless, the Library had suffered through the time of demolition. Ebling Mis had accomplished his work in an unblemished Library in a destroyed world when he had nearly found the Second Foundation (as per the story which the individuals of the Foundation despite everything accepted, except which history specialists have consistently treated with save). The three ages of Darells †Bayta, Toran, and Arkady †had each, at once or another, been on Trantor. Be that as it may, Arkady had not visited the Library, and since her time the Library had not encroached on Galactic history. No Foundationer had been on Trantor in a hundred and twenty years, yet there was no motivation to accept the Library was not still there. That it had made no impingement was the surest proof for its being there. Its demolition would definitely have made a clamor. The Library was outdated and age-old †it had been so even in Ebling Mis' time †however that was all to the great. Pelorat consistently scoured his hands with energy when he thought of an old and outdated Library. The more established and the more old fashioned, the more probable it was to have what he required. In his fantasies, he would enter the Library and ask in short of breath caution, â€Å"Has the Library been modemized? Have you tossed out the old tapes and computerizations?† And consistently he envisioned the appropriate response from dusty and old custodians, â€Å"As it has been, Professor, so is it still.† What's more, presently his fantasy would work out. The Mayor herself had guaranteed him of that. How she had known about his work, he wasn't exactly certain. He had not prevailing with regards to distributing numerous papers. Little of what he had done was strong enough to be adequate for distribution and what had showed up had left no imprint. In any case, they said Branno the Bronze realized all that went on in Terminus and had eyes toward the finish of each finger and toe. Pelorat could nearly trust it, yet in the event that she knew about his work, why on Terminus didn't she see its significance and give him a little money related help before this? By one way or another, he thought, with as much harshness as possible produce, the Foundation had its eyes fixed immovably on what's to come. It was the Second Empire and their predetermination that assimilated them. They had no time, no craving, to peer once more into the past †and they were bothered by the individuals who did. The more idiots they, obviously, yet he was unable to without any help clear out indiscretion. Furthermore, it may be better so. He could embrace the incredible interest to his own chest and the day would come when he would be recognized as the incomparable Pioneer of the Important. That implied, obviously (and he was excessively mentally fair to decline to see it), that he, as well, was caught up later on †a future wherein he would be perceived, and in which he would be a saint on a standard with Hari Seldon. Truth be told, he would be the more prominent, for how could the working out of an obviously imagined future a thousand years in length stand correlation with the working out of a lost past at any rate twenty-five centuries old. Also, this was the day; this was the day. The Mayor had said it would be the day after Seldon's picture showed up. That was the main explanation Pelorat had been keen on the Seldon Crisis that for a considerable length of time had consumed each psyche on Terminus and in fact pretty much every brain in the Federation. It had appeared to him to have the most silly effect with regards to whether the capital of the Foundation had stayed here at Terminus, or had been moved elsewhere. What's more, since the emergency had been settled, he stayed uncertain with respect to which side of the issue Hari Seldon had supported, or if the issue under contest had been referenced by any means. It was sufficient that Seldon had showed up and that now this was the day. It was a short while after two toward the evening that a ground-vehicle slid to an end in the garage of his to some degree disconnected house simply outside Terminus legitimate. A back entryway slid back. A gatekeeper in the uniform of the Mayoralty Security Corps ventured out, at that point a youngster, at that point two additional watchmen. Pelorat was dazzled regardless of himself. The Mayor knew about his work as well as obviously thought about it of the most noteworthy significance. The individual who was to be his buddy was given a ceremonial group, and he had been guaranteed a top of the line vessel which his friend would have the option to guide. Generally complimenting! Most †Pelorat's servant opened the entryway. The youngster entered and the two watchmen situated themselves on either side of the passage. Through the window, Pelorat saw that the third gatekeeper stayed outside and that a second ground-vehicle had now pulled up. Extra monitors! Befuddling! He went to locate the youngster in his room and was astonished to find that he remembered him. He had seen him on holocasts. He stated, â€Å"You're that Councilman. You're Trevize!† â€Å"Golan Trevize. It's hard to believe, but it's true. You are Professor Janov Pelorat?† â€Å"Yes, yes,† said Pelorat. â€Å"Are you he who will †â€Å" â€Å"We will be individual travelers,† said Trevize woodenly. â€Å"Or so I have been told.† â€Å"But you're not a historian.† â€Å"No, I'm most certainly not. As you stated, I'm a Councilman, a politician.† â€Å"Yes, Yes, But what am I considering? I am a student of history, accordingly what requirement for another? You can guide a spaceship.† â€Å"Yes, I'm truly acceptable at that.† â€Å"Well, that is the thing that we need, at that point. Phenomenal! I'm worried I'm not one of your reasonable masterminds, youngster, so on the off chance that it ought to happen that you are, we'll make a decent team.† Trevize stated, â€Å"I am not, right now, overpowered with the greatness of my own reasoning, however it appears we must choose the option to attempt to make it a decent team.† â€Å"Let's expectation, at that point, that I can defeat my vulnerability about space. I've never been in space, you know, Councilman. I am a groundhog, if that is the term. Okay like a glass of tea, coincidentally? I'll have Moda set us up something. It is my understanding that it will be a few hours prior

Blog Archive Diamonds in the Rough Hospitality Business at Michigan State University

Blog Archive Diamonds in the Rough Hospitality Business at Michigan State University MBA applicants can get carried away with rankings. In this series, we profile amazing programs at business schools that are typically ranked outside the top 15. Michigan State University’s Broad College of Business has an established reputation for its supply chain management program, which was ranked number two by U.S. News World Report in 2014. But the school also has a longstanding reputation for producing business leaders in the field of hospitality and hotel management. Established in 1927, the School of Hospitality Business is housed within Broad and has consistently placed among the top-ranking hospitality programs in the country. MBA students looking to complete the graduate specialization in hospitality business can supplement their general business curriculum with such career-focused courses as “Hospitality Operations,” “Marketing in the Hospitality Industry” and “Financial Management in the Hospitality Industry.” All students in this specialization program are required to complete two different internships, offering extensive hands-on learning and networking opportunities. The  school is also a recruiting destination for top companies in the hospitality industryâ€"such as ARAMARK, Disney, Hilton Worldwide, Marriott International, Qdoba Mexican Grill, and Yellowstone National Park Lodgesâ€"and offers students job search assistance through its Student and Industry Resource Center. Share ThisTweet Diamonds in the Rough

African Americans in The Civil War Essay - 656 Words

African Americans were very questionable at first in the Civil War. The Union Navy had been already been accepting African American volunteers. Frederick Douglass thought that the military would help the African Americans have equal rights if they fought with them. Many children helped in the Civil War also, no matter how old they were. Because the African Americans were unfavorable, black units were not used in combat as they might have been. Nevertheless, the African Americans fought in numerous battles. African Americans fought gallantly. Northern leaders also saw another reason to have African Americans in the Civil War is that the Union needed soldiers. Congress aloud them to enlist them because they thought they might as well have†¦show more content†¦African Americans were on the open ground right in the way of deadly artillery fire. Although the attack failed, the black solders proved their capability to withstand the battle. Although black soldiers proved themsel ves as reliable hard fighting soldiers, discrimination in pay and other areas remained wide spread.According to the Militia Act of 1862, African Americans barely just barely received $10.00 a month, plus clothing costs of $3.50. Many African Americans struggled to pay, some of them didnt get any money until June 15, 1864, when Congress gave equal pay for all black soldiers. Even though the African Americans were a big help to the Civil War, they were still treated like slaves. So like if they were wounded during a battle, they wouldnt really take care of them as much as they treated the white people if they got hurt or anything like that. The year 1864 was a memorable eventful for African American troops. On April 12, 1864, at Fort Pillow, Tennessee, Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest led 2,500 men against the Union, occupied by 292 black and 285 white soldiers. After driving in the Union back and giving the garrison one opportunity to surrender, Forrests men went into the fort with ease and drove the Federals down to the river into a deadly crossfire. Many who died were high and only sixty-two of the U.S. African Americans survived the fight. Many accused theShow MoreRelatedAfrican Americans And The Civil War1076 Words   |  5 Pages Throughout history African Americans have had is bad in the United States. First they went through slavery which lasted about two hundred year and was ended around the Civil War which was in the 1860s-1870s. Next after they went through slavery they went through the law of Jim Crow that started after the Civil War which stated, â€Å"Separate but Equal†, and that was not the case because African Americans were still treated as second class citizens. After about ninety years around the 1960s Dr. MartinRead MoreAfrican Americans and the Civil War774 Words   |  4 PagesEssay African Americans and the Civil War Slavery affected many of the political reasons that contributed to causing the Civil War in 1961. Most in the Northern states including President Lincoln were more concerned with preserving the Union rather than fighting for the freedom of all. On the other hand the South fought to preserve what they believed to be absolute state rights. However the overall goals of the war were altered significantly by the willingness of African Americans during war. ThisRead MoreAfrican Americans And The Civil War1449 Words   |  6 PagesWhen the Civil War began, they wanted to take part in fighting to free all slaves. At the end of the civil war passed the civil rights act that gave citizenship to people that are born in the united states, years later African American men were given the right to vote. This might give equal rights but African Americans are still being discriminated. Almost century later, African Americans are still being discriminated. They got jobs and their kids go to school, but more notice that it wasn t rightRead MoreThe Civil War On African Americans Essay1421 Words   |  6 PagesThe years preceding the Civil War were monstrous for African Americans located in the South of the country. Northerners and Southerners would argue that their visions of how society is structured is the right way and should be expanded throughout the nation. Southerners claimed that slavery is okay, and it’s a positive labor system. On the contrary, Northerners claim that laborers should be paid by wage, men should have equal opportunities, and slaves should gain freedom. The four most significantRead MoreAfrican American And The Civil War876 Words   |  4 PagesIn 1865, when the civil war ended in America and slavery was abolished, the African American population in the South faced many challenges related to their new found freedom. Following the pos t-Civil War Reconstruction period, white supremacy resurfaced in the South (AE Television, 2015). Beginning in the early 1900s through 1970 there was a mass exodus of African American s from South to North America. Although some African American s were known to have moved from the South as early as 1850Read MoreThe Civil War Of African Americans1010 Words   |  5 Pagescentury. For an African American, the word â€Å"life† evolved from a word that meant absolutely nothing, to a word that stood for an individual’s highest commodity. After the civil war, emancipation for slaves transformed from a dream to a reality. Although the civil war finally ended in 1865 after four years of fighting, certain citizens and groups across the nation still remained in a state if disagreement with the freedom granted to African Americans. The years after the civil war revolutionizedRead MoreAfrican Americans And The Civil War1309 Words   |  6 PagesIn the summer of 1619, the fir st Africans were brought to Jamestown, Virginia not to live as free settlers but as subordinate slaves. They worked strenuously for Whites, who considered themselves superior to Africans, without much benefit. Racism is not just the belief that one race is superior to others, but the act of negatively identifying individuals based on the color of their skin. Attributing race to individual character has proven to have negative implications that are difficult to mend.Read MoreAfrican Americans And The Civil War1540 Words   |  7 Pageshistorical backdrop of the United States, African Americans have dependable been victimized. When Africans first came to America, they had no choice but to be slaves. The progressed toward becoming slaves to the rich, covetous, lethargic Americans. African Americans had given no compensation and regularly whipped and beaten. They battled for their opportunity, yet when the Civil War came African Americans had this logic that if they were to join the Ci vil War they could liberate all slaves. HoweverRead MoreAfrican Americans And The Civil War859 Words   |  4 Pagesslavery, predominately in the American South, African-Americans were finally set free from bondage. The fourteenth and fifteenth amendments quickly followed, granting citizenship to â€Å"all persons born or naturalized in the United States† and granting African American men the right to vote, respectively. Naturally, Americans denoted these momentous legislative feats, collectively packaged as the Reconstruction Amendments, as a means of celebration for African-Americans. However, in order to rectifyRead MoreAfrican Americans in the Civil War1971 Words   |  8 PagesAnderson HIST 3060 February 25, 13 African Americans and the Civil War The role African Americans played in the outcome, and the road to the outcome of the Civil War was immense. The fact that the south had slaves and the north did not played an enormous role in the issues. The north wanted to abolish slavery, and the south did not and after the war started this became one of the main reasons for the Civil War. Since most African Americans could not read or write, this made them an easy

Definition of Negation Plus Many Helpful Examples

In English grammar, negation is a grammatical construction that contradicts (or negates) all or part of the meaning of a sentence. Also known as  a  negative construction or  standard negation. In standard English, negative clauses and sentences commonly include the negative particle not or the contracted negative nt. Other negative  words include  no, none, nothing, nobody, nowhere, and never.   In many cases, a negative word  can be formed by adding the prefix un- to the positive form of a word  (as in unhappy  and undecided). Other negative affixes (called negators)  include a-, de-, dis-, in-, -less, and mis-. Examples and Observations It was not singing and it was not crying, coming up the stairs.(Faulkner, William. That Evening Sun Go Down, 1931.) I cant remember when I  wasnt singing  out of the house.(Thomas, Irma Talking New Orleans Music,  ed. by  Burt Feintuch. University Press of Mississippi, 2015.) I bet youve never smelled a real school bus before.(Ferris Buellers Day Off, 1986.) I have had a perfectly wonderful evening, but this wasnt it.(Groucho Marx) ​Never trust anyone who has not brought a book with them.(Snicket, Lemony:  Horseradish: Bitter Truths You Cant Avoid, 2007.) I have some rope up here, but I do not think you would accept my help, since I am only waiting around to kill you.(Inigo Montoya in The Princess Bride, 1987.) No zinc tub, no buckets of stove-heated water, no flaky, stiff, grayish towels washed in a kitchen sink, dried in a dusty backyard, no tangled black puffs of rough wool to comb.(Morrison, Toni.  The Bluest Eye,  Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970.) She passed a drugstore, a bakery, a shop  of rugs, a funeral parlor, but nowhere was there a sign of a hardware store.(Singer, Isaac Bashevis. The Key,  A Friend of Kafka  and Other Stories,  Farrar, Straus Giroux, 1970.) I had never before heard pure applause in a ballpark. No calling, no whistling, just an ocean of handclaps, minute after minute, burst after burst, crowding and running together in continuous succession like the pushes of surf at the edge of the sand. It was a sombre and considered tumult. There was not a boo in it.(Updike, John.  Hub Fans Bid Kid Adieu,  1960.) [T]he people of the State of New York cannot allow any individuals within her borders to go  unfed, unclothed, or unsheltered.(New York Governor Franklin Roosevelt, October 1929, quoted by  Herbert Mitgang in  Once Upon a Time in New York,  Cooper Square Press, 2003.) What About Aint? Together with negative concord, aint is perhaps the best-known shibboleth of non-standard English, and this already implies that it is highly stigmatized. Aint is a negative form of unclear historical origin and of very wide usage—both grammatically and geographically. Probably due to a historical coincidence, aint functions as the negative form of both present tense BE and present tense HAVE in non-standard English today.(Anderwald, Lieselotte.  Negation in Non-Standard British English: Gaps, Regularizations, and Asymmetries,  Routledge, 2002.) Boy, have you lost your mind? Cause Ill help you find it. What you looking for, aint nobody gonna help you out there.(Leslie David Baker as Stanley in Take Your Daughter to Work Day, The Office, 2006.) The Position of Not The preferred position for the negator not is after the first word of the auxiliary or after a copula, in a main clause. Under various circumstances, a negator that should properly be placed elsewhere is attracted into this position. Firstly, note that what is here called sentential negation can apply either to a main clause, as in (79), or to a complement clause, as in (80). (79) I didnt say [that he lied] (I said nothing)(80) I said [that he didnt lie] (I said that he told the truth) Here the difference in meaning is significant, and the negator nt is likely to be maintained in its proper place. But consider: (81) I dont think [that he came] (I dont know what he did)(82) I think [that he didnt come] (I think that he stayed away) The sentiment expressed in (81) is not likely to be often expressed, whereas that in (82) is much used. As Jespersen (1909–49, pt. V: 444) mentions, people often say I dont think that he came when they actually mean (82), that he stayed away. This can be accounted for by attraction of nt from the complement clause into the preferred position, after the first word of the auxiliary in the main clause.(Dixon, Robert M.W.  A Semantic Approach to English Grammar,  Oxford University Press, 2005.)

Promoting Healthy Use Of Media For Children And...

Promoting Healthy Use of Media for Children and Adolescents Nowadays children and adolescents are exposed to intensive media, such as television, radio, music, video games, smart devices, and any internet based social media. Rideout (2015) reported that on any given day, American teenagers (13-18 years old) spend about nine hours on entertainment media use, excluding time spent at school or for homework. Tweens (8-12 years old) use an average of about six hours worth of entertainment media daily. Even though there are 45% of teens using social media â€Å"every day,† watching television and listening to music dominate young people’s media diets. Another national study revealed that the average total time of media use for people 8-18 years old was 10 hours and 45 minutes every day (treating simultaneous media use as distinct activities), regardless of text messaging, phoning, or using computers for school work (Rideout, Rideout, Foehr, Roberts, 2010). Media use has grown exponentially and become part of the lives of children and adolescents, which is why they are called â€Å"generation M† for media. So far, no conclusion about whether media use benefits the social emotional development of children and adolescents has been reached among various professionals, such as educators, psychologists, business people, policy makers, etc. However, children and adolescents are at risk while they use media to explore the world and develop their sense of self because of their limitedShow MoreRelatedMapping the Issue: Eating Disorders Essay1225 Words   |  5 Pages Ever since the development of the media such as television, the internet, various fashion magazines and commercial advertisements, society focused more and more on personal appearances. Not only were runway models becoming slimmer but the viewers that watched and read about them were becoming more concerned with their weight. In the past fifty years the number of adolescen t girls developing eating disorders increased just as television, advertisements, and magazines were becoming a social norm thatRead MoreEssay on Effects of Internet Use on Adolescents Development 1181 Words   |  5 Pagesyou spend online? Does your use of the Internet take a toll on your diet, exercise and sleep? Think about today’s young people. They cannot remember a time when they did not have computers and cell phones. While technology and the Internet are useful tools to get information fast, the increasing use of the Internet by adolescents is taking a toll on their physical and emotional development. This increase in use of the Internet is causing several health issues in adolescents; these include problems withRead MoreThe Importance Of Obesity Among Adolescents954 Words   |  4 Pagesconcerning is the prevalence of obesity among adolescents, which has many health implications. Obesity in adolescents was not widely studied until recent years, and can be defined a s an excess of body fat caused by an imbalance of energy (food) intake and energy output (Cummins and Macintyre, 2006). According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), overweight is the body mass index (BMI) at or above the 85th percentile for children and adolescents of the same age and sex; and obesity isRead MoreLearning Styles And Sociocultural Influences On Child And Adolescent Development1641 Words   |  7 Pagesessay will describe child and adolescent behaviours reported in the media and will examine the link to development theories, learning styles and sociocultural influences on child and adolescent development. As a developing secondary school preserve teacher, my focus will be mainly on adolescent behaviours and development. I will be examining an article from a media how these developmental theories analyses and helps us to understand the behaviour of child and adolescents. I will also try to explainRead MoreFast Food And Childhood Obesity1166 Words à ‚  |  5 Pages â€Å"Childhood obesity is a serious epidemic, affecting children across the world. In our country alone, 17% of all children and adolescents are now obese, triple the rate from just a generation ago† (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2011). This drastic increase leads researchers and ordinary citizens alike to speculate about possible causes. Fast food consumption is one potential cause that has received widespread attention. Many researchers have looked at the relationshipRead MoreIs Sex All That Matter?1108 Words   |  5 PagesJoyce Garity, she offers up commentary on today’s teenagers that are being bombarded with unrealistic expectations of their sexual behavior. Many of the unrealistic sexual images shown in television, advertisements, and magazines influence these adolescents behavior and dreams. Several of these advertisers trumpet sexuality making the teenagers expectation for their own sexual life unrealistic and unsafe, due to the fact that they are unaware of the consequences that can occur; For example, sexuallyRead MoreEvaluating Attainment by Children: Bridging Conspicuous Consumption with Fundamental Elements of Obtaining Commodities 1747 Words   |  7 Pagescommunity acknowledgment and action to respond to issues at hand. (Tepperman Curtis, 2011, p. 3). This paper will discuss the growing concern of materialistic children as a global crisis and recognizin g catalysts that fuel the adolescent addiction to consumption. The current capitalist system that looms over society relies on the principle that children from an early age must become consumers to ensure global economies prosper through mass individual spending on goods and services (Preston, 2005; OBarrRead MoreThe Importance Of Parental Involvement On Childhood Obesity1342 Words   |  6 Pageslinked with a child’s nutritional intake and the amount of their physical activity. In the current literature, the researchers has analyzed and studied how parental influence affect their children in the development of childhood obesity as well as, in its prevention. Effective interventions such as promoting healthy eating and physical activity are habits that can develop at home. Parents are the first liner in prevention of childhood obesity. The researchers Ana Lindsay, Katrina Sussner, Juhee KimRead MoreThe Halo Effect Essay1249 Words   |  5 Pagesdefinitely true in the medi a because people put so much importance on being attractive and often value people more based on that, whether or not their other characteristics are actually positive. An article that supports the importance of this thin promoting media being harmful said that a study predicted thinness-depicting and -promoting (TDP) media would predict results of eating disorders more strongly than a general exposure to mass media. The findings showed that this TDP media in fact did correlateRead MoreThe Ethics Of Advertising For Children1731 Words   |  7 Pages Congratulations, it s a †¦ Consumer! The Ethics of Advertising to Children Ishaaq Beg ENG4U Ms. Lodi October 22nd 2015 Ishaaq Beg Ms. Lodi ENG4U October 22nd 2015 Advertising to Children â€Å"The consumer embryo begins to develop during the first year of existence. Children begin their consumer journey in infancy, and they certainly deserve consideration as consumers at that time† - James U. McNeal, Youth Marketer. Companies have their sights on kids for many reasons, but

Algebra, free essay sample

For this problem we will figure out if the Tartan 4100 is safe for sailing. The formula given is C= 4d1/3 where d is the displacement in pounds In the first example the boat has a beam of 13. 5 and a displacement of 23,245 lbs C = 4d1/3b The starting radical formula C = 4(23,245)1/3(13. 5) Values plugged in C = 4(. 035)(13. 5) Apply exponent C = 0. 14(13. 5) Multiply C = 1. 89 This is less than or equal to 2 so this vessel is safe for sailing. Another way to find out if the sailboat is safe for sailing is to take the radical formula we just got and solve for the variable d. c/4b3=d1/3(3) Multiply each side by 3/1 to cancel out the exponent. D = c – 3 Since this is a negative, use the reciprocal to cancel out the negative 64b – 3 D = 64b3 convert the cube root D = (4b/c)3 We were presented with the value of b being 13. 5 at the start of the problem. We will write a custom essay sample on Algebra, or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The given problem has presented us with 3 variables.. Variable c is used to represent the capsize screening value. Variable d represents the displacement in pounds. Variable b represents the beam width. While studying math many people feel there is very little or no place in the real word in which we will use what it is we are being taught. This problem has shown us that we can use radical formulas in the real world. The sailing world uses radical formulas to determine if a sailboat is safe for ocean sailing. REFERENCES Dugopolski, M. (2012) Elementary and intermediate algebra (4th ed). New York, NY: McGraw – Hill Publishing.

School General Education Essay Sample free essay sample

In sing an simple school general instruction. this is an analysis of their rules of practising literacy direction through lesson programs and execution. Some of the observation standards autumn under communicating. being a constructivist. understanding to trip anterior cognition. interaction and reasoning with a reappraisal and an appraisal of some sort. Teacher should work to increase students’ motive on acquisition and utilize systematic direction throughout the lesson program. After an observation description. associating the strengths. failings or betterments that should be made. a personal contemplation of execution is shared turn toing how the environment was used. how could it hold been altered to back up more chances for larning and what was surprising during the observation. During the hebdomad of February 11th. 2013. I was given the chance to detect Ms. Houzvicka’s foremost grade category at Juan Cabrillo Elementary in Hawthorne. CA. For one twenty-four hours. I observed her schoolroom for the full twenty-four hours. We will write a custom essay sample on School General Education Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page giving interruptions for tiffin. deferral and bite. The entire period of observation was between four to five hours. The programming and kineticss of Cabrillo Elementary in the last few old ages has shown to be improbably particular. Ms. Houzvicka explained to me that the Wiseburn District has pushed forth a program called the Single Plan for Student Achievement ( SPSA ) that focuses on actions to raise the academic public presentation of all pupils to the degrees of public presentation ends of the California Academic Performance Index ( API ) . As a consequence of the SPSA. at the beginning of each twelvemonth. the student’s anterior and future instructors spend clip to make up ones mind whether the pupil meets the baseline demand. finding if a pupil requires more clip with the instructor ; this sets them in a bracket of â€Å"early bird† or â€Å"late bird† . It is implemented so that pupils will have the support that they require. It allows for Language Arts direction to be conducted in smaller groups with the instructor and provides an chance for pupils with troubles to take portion in resource specializer plans without losing out on their regular daily direction. Cabrillo Elementary serves pre kindergarten through 2nd graders. On a regular twenty-four hours. there are many different times set for the pupils. Under the kindergarten agenda. there are the â€Å"tedde† kindergarten ( TK ) â€Å"early bird† and â€Å"late bird† pupils but besides the kindergarten â€Å"early bird† and â€Å"late bird† pupils. TK pupils are the pupils who merely miss the cutoff age for kindergarten. In kernel. TK pupils will see kindergarten in the span of two old ages. foremost to concentrate on societal or motor development and so in the 2nd twelvemonth. to concentrate on academic and learning accomplishments. First and 2nd graders are besides on the â€Å"early bird† and â€Å"late bir d† agendas for the same grounds. Each pupil is separately assessed at the beginning of the school twelvemonth. For illustration. for preschoolers. pupils were evaluated if whether they can acknowledge their letters. sounds and Numberss. From the baseline of come ining into the twelvemonth. there is a recorded sheet of their basic accomplishments. After each trimester. more information is documented. After the appraisal of each pupil is made. the instructors and resource specializers work together to find which of the plans that the pupil will go to. At Cabrillo Elementary. there are several plans to turn to the different demands of the pupils. The English Learners Development ( ELD ) and Reading Intervention plans allow for pupils to hold an drawn-out twenty-four hours concentrating chiefly on Language Arts or reading. The Individually Designed Arts Program ( IDAP ) focuses on dance direction to learn and help pupils in coordination and beat. which is believed to be necessary for reading and math. The IDAP besides includes a subdivision of vocal music for specifically 2nd graders to learn and better reading eloquence. With plans like these. the support of the alone programming and by detecting two categories at Cabr illo Elementary. it offers an environment that supports English Learners in several ways. Get downing the observation of Ms. Houzvicka’s schoolroom. the ambiance seemed everyday but merriment. interesting and challenging. The pupils were excited and delighted to be in the category. Each of them set their back pack outside of the schoolroom. entered and sat softly on the group carpet. Once they all arrived to the group carpet. they were encouraged to prosecute with Ms. Houzvicka in a sing-along vocal. The Farmer in the Dell. Modeling for the pupils to sing along. the vocal would travel through three unit of ammunitions to promote and give each of the pupils a opportunity to fall in along. if they wanted. It reminded me of a old text edition that I read where Serdyukov and Hill ( 2009. p. 59 ) stated that the synergistic procedure in a scene is what brings scholars and talkers together. A review of Ms. Houzvicka’s sing along opening activity to warm the pupils up to the twenty-four hours would be that alternatively of it. the possibly of utilizing something wi th more societal interaction would hold better suit the docket. The usage of societal interaction frequently bridges pupils. traveling from the unknown to the known and offers an chance to link to each other. doing material relevant to themselves and linguistic communication. However. with the lessons in front. this portion of the twenty-four hours makes sense because she is presenting different signifiers of reading to her pupils. By presenting this activity in the beginning of her twenty-four hours. it seems that she understands that pupils learn when they hear. read and when they are given the chance to be custodies on about literacy. After group rug clip. a set of three lessons concentrating on accomplishments that the pupils needed to better upon were presented and reviewed. The activities allowed for connexion between the word and an image. further and deeper comprehension. and encouraged self-expression. For illustration in one lesson. she encouraged the pupils to utilize their imaginativeness and pull the image of a word. For case. for the word. â€Å"pan† . the pupils needed to pull what they thought a â€Å"pan† would look like. In this lesson. she connects their anterior cognition to the word that they are conceive ofing. By presenting the word and actively inquiring the pupils to pull it. the new word becomes meaningful through personalization. In another lesson. while reading over a l ittle brochure with simple words and thoughts. she encouraged the pupils to link thoughts together. leting for a deeper comprehension of the sentence. So while the sentence said. â€Å"Billy runs. † She would inquire. â€Å"Who is Billy? Is it the butterfly? The snail or the fox? † The pupils would gestate that it is the fox because a butterfly can non run. it flies and a snail does non run but it is slow. Ms. Houzvicka engaged with the pupils with inquiries that would let for independent thought and connexions. Her end shined through that with reading. the pupils should read things in their entireness to do a decision. In a concluding lesson. she had. â€Å"read. cast. hint and write† words. The bit-by-bit procedure of this was to let the pupils to look at the word. interrupt down the word by letters. cast. so trace the word and repetition. In each of the three lessons that were covered. there was a strong presentation of mold. She gave illustrations of work. the procedure. and a concluding illustration of the work. giving criterions of what she expected. She besides activated their anterior cognition on what was non finished from the old twenty-four hours. helped the pupils make connexions and showed how the stuff became relevant. Here. she made it possible for pupils to go custodies on about their reading. literacy and linguistic communication. It showed that through these three activities. the pupils understood the waies. More significantly. Ms. Houzvicka was stressing linguistic communication as a tool to communicating with the aid of metacognitive development. By making a treatment environment. she would inquire inquiries ; allow the pupils reflect before replying for them and let them to work in braces if it meant that they were collaboratively larning together. She besides made certain that in her bringing of lessons. it was utilizing sheltered English. where her degree of address was natural but slow plenty to understand ; she kept her sentences short. clearly enunciated. simple. controlled and checked with the category for their apprehension. Each lesson and direction. Ms. Houzvicka used enthusiastic organic structure linguistic communication. facial looks. gestures. aid and encouragement. The interaction seemed positive. endearing and motivational while supplying a clip for the pupils to demo their high order and cr itical thought accomplishments. At the terminal of the twenty-four hours. she reviewed with her pupils. allowing them speak about what they read. compose and what was interesting for the twenty-four hours. To finalise the twenty-four hours. Ms. Houzvicka applauses the pupils for utilizing their critical thought and forcing Forth a great attempt in their lessons. The environment of Ms. Houzvicka’s category was organized. with her tabular array in one corner. a wall with a few computing machines and tabular arraies in rectangular forms to suit the pupils. On the walls. they were covered with many visuals of words. images. alphabets and artworks of the conditions. presidents to regulations of the schoolroom. On the board. before get downing. she had a timeline of the twenty-four hours in front. what they were traveling to make and when deferral was or tiffin. It was a thoughtful consideration of how to clew the pupils into their duties and docket. Most of the milieus in this category were thoughtful and supportive of larning literacy and reading. Not much of the milieus could hold been altered unless there were more resources. The one add-on that could hold benefited the pupils is by supplying more computing machines for the pupils who are high accomplishing. With merely four computing machines in the room. it restricts the sum of pupils that are able to utilize them after completing their category work. If there were more resources and package that incorporates more than one pupil at a computing machine. it could further back up the acquisition of literacy. Ms. Houzvicka’s lesson programs fit the generic program nevertheless. with clip direction. she was able to suit more information in the single lesson programs to maintain pupils occupied after one activity was finished. The appraisal and larning results may non be fit and clear cut rubric but their rating fits a public presentation or reliable appraisal. Rather than rating their replies. because all of their replies will be suiting to the stuff. she focused on the completion of the undertakings performed and the accomplishments obtained. This type of appraisal is more fitting for simple pupils and personally. seems more fitting for any educational scene. The force per unit areas of standardised trials. formative or summational appraisals seem to postpone from the joy of acquisition and retaining cognition. When it comes to measuring how I could perchance learn each of these categories otherwise. it is hard to better lessons that are working. With the consequences of the API Numberss lifting over the last old ages. the lessons implemented show pupils are larning. understanding. edifice assurance and volunteering in category. The lone possible change that I would propose for the school is to let for more category clip with the instructors. I feel that while these lessons are demoing betterment in the students’ tonss. the add-on of more originative. custodies on. art activities would heighten their involvement in linguistic communication. Humanistic disciplines and trades can lend greatly to a student’s interaction with a lesson. For case. a lesson program could include pulling a image of a scene in a book without looking at the illustrations. This add-on of an art and the usage of imaginativeness would prosecute and catch a student’s attending because it does non merely go individualized but it besides becomes merriment. However. Cabrillo shows through their implemented programs that the studentsâ€⠄¢ are retaining a positive experience and appreciating their instructors. While pupils are happy. instructors are supplying positive direction and consequences ; there is non much that can be done to teach otherwise. After the observation hebdomad. I spoke with Ms. Houzvicka about her ain adaptation of direction. how she implements and develops lessons. particularly for English Learners. Touching base on my ain acquisition about SDAIE and other methods. Ms. Houzvicka tells me SDAIE is â€Å"good teaching† that has enhanced her lesson programs. She admits that half manner through the school twelvemonth. she has seen a positive alteration in her pupils. They tend to be more confident and willing to take portion in treatments. With consequences in the API of the school. she is more than confident that the plans are working in the students’ benefit. She says that with the Wiseburn District’s population being a bulk of minorities. plans that push the cardinal elements of English. it boosts the assurance in pupils early on. which she believes. will hold a strong positive affect in their hereafter. She portions with me that while she directs her direction towards English Learners because her category ( like much of the school ) is filled with minorities with English being a 2nd linguistic communication at place. Cabrillo’s plans like ELD and Reading Intervention enormously help with the students’ educational attitude by offering the support and encouragement that they need. To complete our interview like conversation. she tells me that as a hereafter instructor. the tip to remain current in the schoolroom is to remain in melody with the pupils. For illustration. she tells me old ages ago. direction in the schoolroom was non engineering based ; remaining current with engineering. resources and what may catch the students’ attending is the most of import facet of being a good instructor. Cabrillo Elementary seems to be a strong school with instructors and decision makers that genuinely care for the promotion in their API but besides their students’ wellbeings and hereafters. Through the observation and interview. it has shined a visible radiation on the strengths of implementing SDAIE methods into lesson planning. how to do direction more individualized for the pupils but most of all. the attitude of the instructor is what sets the tone of the schoolroom. In my hereafter as an pedagogue. I hope that I will be able to follow the footfalls of Ms. Houzvicka and other great instructors. MentionsSerdyukov. P. . A ; Hill. R. ( 2009 ) Methodology for Second Language Development: Revised Education for National University. Boston: Pearson.

Free Essays on The Achievements of Public Education

Since the early 1980’s, the issue of America’s flattering public school system has become a serious concern. The crisis in K-12 education is one of the biggest challenges facing the nation. If America’s Public Schools are to meet the needs of the twenty first century, they must be reinvented. It is not enough to try to fix the schools; they must be reconstructed in both fundamental and radical ways. The school system must be reconstructed. The future of the American public school system is significant because the maintenance of an informed and productive community is vital to the future of this country. The pitifully low results of American students through international test scores are one obvious fault. Another is the failure of many students to demonstrate their knowledge of basic skills and literacy. It is surprising that such a long time has passed without any sufficient effort put forth to correct the problem. Even more surprising, is the fact t hat some deny that such a problem exists. There is a great deal of evidence to show this problem. For more than a century, America’s public schools have been an essential source of the country’s strength. Public education has allowed citizens to become productive members of society by providing them with skills and knowledge necessary for the labor force. Schools prepare students to be literate, informed and reasoning citizens. According to Philip Schlechty, author of Schools for the twenty-first century, â€Å"Public schools are the ties that bind this pluralistic society into a nation. Our Nation’s thirty-sixth president, Lyndon B. Johnson, also believed that there is no institution more fundamental to American society and democracy than its public schools (Schlechty).† In the competitive knowledge based world of the twenty-first century, the education of America’s youth will be more important than ever. More responsibility will be placed on schools ... Free Essays on The Achievements of Public Education Free Essays on The Achievements of Public Education Since the early 1980’s, the issue of America’s flattering public school system has become a serious concern. The crisis in K-12 education is one of the biggest challenges facing the nation. If America’s Public Schools are to meet the needs of the twenty first century, they must be reinvented. It is not enough to try to fix the schools; they must be reconstructed in both fundamental and radical ways. The school system must be reconstructed. The future of the American public school system is significant because the maintenance of an informed and productive community is vital to the future of this country. The pitifully low results of American students through international test scores are one obvious fault. Another is the failure of many students to demonstrate their knowledge of basic skills and literacy. It is surprising that such a long time has passed without any sufficient effort put forth to correct the problem. Even more surprising, is the fact t hat some deny that such a problem exists. There is a great deal of evidence to show this problem. For more than a century, America’s public schools have been an essential source of the country’s strength. Public education has allowed citizens to become productive members of society by providing them with skills and knowledge necessary for the labor force. Schools prepare students to be literate, informed and reasoning citizens. According to Philip Schlechty, author of Schools for the twenty-first century, â€Å"Public schools are the ties that bind this pluralistic society into a nation. Our Nation’s thirty-sixth president, Lyndon B. Johnson, also believed that there is no institution more fundamental to American society and democracy than its public schools (Schlechty).† In the competitive knowledge based world of the twenty-first century, the education of America’s youth will be more important than ever. More responsibility will be placed on schools ...

To what extend has govermental policy been a factor in explaining each Essay

To what extend has govermental policy been a factor in explaining each country's development trajectory - Essay Example This can be shown with historical evidence beginning from the development of Britain as an industrialised nation due to the colonisation policies of the time to the current mandates of the IMF and the World Bank which are supposed to help developing nations. Admittedly, it can be said that certain situation and policies might be forced upon some nations and not really accepted by the government therefore calling them government policy is rather an obtuse notion. However, it must be realised that the sovereignty of a government is not infringed upon simply because it has been given some recommendations by the United Nations or other international bodies who aim to help the country in need. Therefore, any policies established or created by the government have to be seen according to the letter of the law which makes it government policy. During the age of colonisation, the British Empire ruled an area over which the sun never set. The government policy of expansion and increased utilisation of colonies like the Americas and India certainly helped the economic and social development which took place at home. The input gained from commerce, farming and export of material to the American continent was the fundamental reason that led to the industrial revolution and the growth of Britain as a powerhouse amongst its European neighbours. A detailed record of the relationship between the American colonies and the homeland of Britain shows that the conquest of the Americas can be taken as a founding mechanism and a cornerstone of the industrial revolution that took place in Europe (Hamilton, 1929). Credit must also be given to the scientific development which was slowly taking shape in those times as well as the philosophical changes to the concept of government, but without the governmental policy to support colonisation efforts; such

Enviroment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Enviroment - Essay Example re not controlled by forest guards and other environmental conservationists in conjunction with the citizens, then reforestation is all that will be done and before those trees grow to curb the carbon dioxide, it will be several decades. Widespread destruction of forests is one of the setbacks that is being experienced not only in United States but in other continents too like Australia and this has meant that the governments are spending most of their conservation resources meant to benefit the future generation’s environment fighting these fires. This impact negatively on the rest of the population who have to continue waiting before the environment becomes better. The Copenhagen Agreement of 2009 is a continuation of the Kyoto Protocol and is aimed on ensuring climate change impacts are dealt with not only on paper but on the ground too. It especially focuses on cutting deeply the global emissions which are the greatest headache for climate change (Fabra and Mackenzie, 295). Blevins, Gene. â€Å"Wildfire grows chases thousands out of Southern Calif. Forest.† NBCnews, 3/9/2012. Retrieved from:

Compare and contrast Shakespeare Essay Example for Free

Compare and contrast Shakespeare Essay Both poets discuss the treatment of women within their world. In each case, they indicate their disgust with the way men behave. Shakespeares sonnet offers a mocking tone to the courtly gentlemen of his day whilst Zephanaiahs tone is more angry. Shakespeare writes to a strict ABAB rhyming pattern within the fourteen line sonnet structure. Benjamin Zephanaiah however does not stick to any sort of standard rhyming pattern and the poem is not written in a regular western structure, more so in a reggae rhythm. The effect Shakespeare obtains from this structure is one of a mordant tone. The audience of the time would have expected a poem of love like Bartholomew Griffins Fiddesa. The audience expects My mistress eyes to be described as on a level with the warm brightness of the sun, and are stunned to read nothing like the sun. This evidently gives an image of Shakespeare mocking Griffin and other poets that wrote love poems at the time. I think that Zephanaiah, however, is not writing in a regular western structure and rhythm because he wants to break convention. His poem is deeply rhythmic but he clearly avoids using Eurocentric rhyming patterns and structures. This encapsulates an angry atmosphere to the poem. The reggae rhythm is often used to attack western culture. The Caribbean culture used the reggae rhythm to speak out in times of despair when Negroes were persecuted. Reggae has a distinctive sound, which originates from the West Indies. Zephanaiah writes put de judge in the grave,. The word grave is a very strong word. He is almost suggesting the judge should be killed. When he says, judge I do not think he is only referring to the judges of these so called Miss World beauty pageants but anybody that is judgemental in this way. Every person on the planet has judged somebody at some time in his or her lives, so does everybody deserve to die? It becomes apparent that Zephanaiah is also unhappy with other types of persecutions, namely racism. Zephanaiah makes several references to slavery and how his sister dont want to go to the market to be viewed like a slave and be viewed like her ancestors were, like second class citizens. He carefully intertwines womanhood and slavery. He is clearly referring to women that have been forced to become prostitutes in the red light districts of the world. Zephanaiah shows his rage to these activities as well as his disgust with how some people feel that women are tradable. Both poems use non-comparisons. Shakespeare say his mistress eyes are nothing like the sun; and that no such roses see I in her cheeks;. Shakespeare clearly mocks the love poets of the era; for example in the poem Fidessa by Bartholomew Griffin his ladys eyes the brightest stars the heavens hold; Her cheeks, red roses, such as seld have been; Fidessa line 3 Benjamin Griffin wrote Fidessa in 1596. Sonnet 130 was written just thirteen years later in 1609. Fidessa is written in the style typical to the love poetry of the time. Shakespeare clearly detests this style of writing, so writes a poem to mock it. Shakespeares poem is written in a sarcastic manner. Zephanaiah, however, uses different types of non comparisons like her value is not prize money. She is priceless. Human souls are not designed for trading; a price cannot be put on a life. The difference in effect is a much angrier feeling to the more modern of the two poems. Neither one of the poems describes the female as a woman, lady or even wife. Shakespeare uses mistress. Mistress are associated with power and control; they are on a level with any male equivalents. Zephanaiah uses the word sister. Again he is trying to show the female as an equal to the male. In both poems this has the same effect; the female is treated in the same way as a man. Both poets are trying to give a certain amount of respect to women. Both poems feature the same basic themes of sexual discrimination, the only difference being the tone they are written in. Sonnet 130 is written to mock the poets of the time whilst Miss World is written in resentment and exasperation.

children stereotypes on tv Essay -- essays research papers fc

Stereotypes in Children’s Television: â€Å"The Proud Family†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The Proud Family† is a children’s program that runs daily on The Disney Channel and on Saturday mornings on ABC Kids. It is a TV-G rated program. The show is about an African-American family with the last name Proud. There is a mom, dad, three kids, and a grandmother. The main character of the show is the oldest daughter named Penny Proud who is probably in junior high. Also, some of Penny’s friends are in the show. All of the characters in this show are stereotyped by many things such as race and gender, including Penny.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first stereotype I noticed about the show was the way the cartoonist drew the different characters. All of the African-American characters were drawn with enormous lips and huge noses. Meanwhile, the two Caucasian characters in the show were both drawn with wider heads and seemed smarter than the other characters in the show. Also, all the African-American characters talked in a dialect while the Caucasian characters talked slower. In addition, all of the African-American characters all called each other â€Å"brotha,† which is another stereotype, because not all African-Americans call each other that or like to be called that.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many stereotypes made about the main character Penny. First, her race is the main issue in the show. She is shown drawn the same way as the other African-American, with the bigger features described before. Penny also has a kind of attitude about her, which is also often associated with African-American females. Not only is she stereotyped by race, but by gender as well. She is shown as the smart and understanding friend, probably because she is the main girl character in the show. For example, when her friend, Dlionay, has a problem with a boy, Penny is the one that helps Dlionay out and gives her advice and helps her try to win back the boy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  However, there were also other gender stereotypes in the show as well. The girl, Dlionay was often shown as the kind of â€Å"damsel in distress.† A few times a boy was sent to rescue her. For example, one of her friends was stuck out in the water and instead of getting him herself, she plead to the other boy to please save him. This shows the stereotype that men are stronger and braver than women... ...e typical physical stereotypes of African-Americans, this show is good for children to see because the characters are kind to each other and it portrays a loving family and home and great friends for the children. I believe that overall this show gives a positive image of African-American characters to everyone who watches. Even though there were some stereotypes of race and gender, it didn’t affect the overall message of the program, which was to help out friends when they are in need and make sure your family is important in your life. This show was funny as it was compassionate. If I had children I would like them to watch this show because almost all of the other shows I saw on television before choosing to write about this one had Caucasian characters or animals and the main focus of the show. I believe that this program, â€Å"The Proud Family,† gives a great deal of diversity to The Disney Channel’s and ABC Kids other programs and gives children more of an opportunity to relate to a character and learn that minority people are in important part of out population as well. Works Cited Perse, Elizabeth M. Media Effects and Society. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 2001.

Stylistics

STYLISTICS In Stylistics Richard Bradford provides a definitive introductory guide to modern critical ideas on literary style and stylistics. The book includes examples of poems, plays and novels from Shakespeare to the present day. This comprehensive and accessible guidebook for undergraduates explains the terminology of literary form, considers the role of stylistics in twentieth-century criticism, and shows, with worked examples, how literary style has evolved since the sixteenth century.This book falls into three sections: Part I follows the discipline of stylistics from classical rhetoric to poststructuralism; Part II looks at the relationship between literary style and its historical context; Part III considers the relationships between style and gender, and between style and evaluative judgement. Richard Bradford is Professor of English at the University of Ulster. He has written books on Kingsley Amis, Roman Jakobson, Milton, eighteenth-century criticism, visual poetry and li nguistics. THE NEW CRITICAL IDIOMSERIES EDITOR: JOHN DRAKAKIS, UNIVERSITY OF STIRLING The New Critical Idiom is an invaluable series of introductory guides to today’s critical terminology. Each book: †¢ provides a handy, explanatory guide to the use (and abuse) of the term †¢ offers an original and distinctive overview by a leading literary and cultural critic †¢ relates the term to the larger field of cultural representation. With a strong emphasis on clarity, lively debate and the widest possible breadth of examples, The New Critical Idiom is an indispensable approach to key topics in literary studies. See below for new books in this series. Gothic by Fred Botting Historicism by Paul Hamilton Ideology by David Hawkes Metre, Rhythm and Verse Form by Philip Hobsbaum Romanticism by Aidan Day Stylistics by Richard Bradford Humanism by Tony Davies Sexuality by Joseph Bristow STYLISTICS Richard Bradford LONDON AND NEW YORK First published 1997 by Routledge 11 New F etter Lane, London EC4P 4EE This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. â€Å"To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www. Bookstore. tandf. co. uk. † Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001  © 1997 Richard Bradford All rights reserved. No part of this book my be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Bradford, Richard Stylistics / Richard Bradford. p. cm. —(The new critical idiom) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Style, Literary. I. Title. II. Series. PN203. B68 1997 809–dc20 96–27990 CIP ISBN 0-203-99265-2 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-415-09768-1 (Print Edition) 0-415-09769-X (pbk) To Jennifer Ford CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS SERIES EDITOR’S PREFACE INTRODUCTION iii ix xi PART I A SHORT HISTORY OF STYLISTICS 1 2 3 4 5 Rhetoric Stylistics and modern criticism Textualism I: poetry Textualism II: the novel Contextualist stylistics 2 11 14 50 72 PART II STYLISTICS AND LITERARY HISTORY 6 7 8 9 10 11 Renaissance and Augustan poetry Literary style and literary history Shakespeare’s drama: two stylistic registers The eighteenth-and nineteenthcentury novel Romanticism Modernism and naturalization 98 110 117 126 143 151 PART III GENDER AND EVALUATION vii 12 13 Gender and genre Evaluative stylistics BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX 67 183 201 206 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to the Faculty of Humanities and the School of English, University of Ulster, for providing me with the time to finish this book, and to John Drakakis, a scrupulous editor. The author and publisher are grateful for the permission to reproduce extracts from T. S. Eliot, Collected Poems 1909– 1962, reprinted courtesy of Faber & Faber Ltd. Every effort has been made to obtain permission to use copyright material in this book. Please contact the publisher if any omissions have inadvertently occurred.SERIES EDITOR’S PREFACE The New Critical Idiom is a series of introductory books which seeks to extend the lexicon of literary terms, in order to address the radical changes which have taken place in the study of literature during the last decades of the twentieth century. The aim is to provide clear, well-illustrated accounts of the full range of terminology currently in use, and to evolve histories of its changing usage. The current state of the discipline of literary studies is one where there is considerable debate concerning basic questions of terminology.This in volves, among other things, the boundaries which distinguish the literary from the non-literary; the position of literature within the larger sphere of culture; the relationship between literatures of different cultures; and questions concerning the relation of literary to other cultural forms within the context of interdisciplinary studies. It is clear that the field of literary criticism and theory is a dynamic and heterogenous one. The present need is for individual volumes on terms which combine clarity of exposition with an adventurousness of perspective and a breadth of application.Each volume will contain as part of its apparatus some indication of the direction in which the definition of particular terms is likely to move, as well as expanding the disciplinary boundaries within which some of these terms have been traditionally contained. This will involve some re-situation of terms within the larger field of cultural representation, and will introduce examples from the x are a of film and the modern media in addition to examples from a variety of literary texts. INTRODUCTIONStylistics is an elusive and slippery topic. Every contribution to the vast and multifaceted discipline of literary studies will involve an engagement with style. To accept that the subject of our attention or our critical essay is a poem, a novel or a play involves an acceptance that literature is divided into three basic stylistic registers. Even a recognition of literary studies as a separate academic sphere is prefigured by a perceived distinction between literary and non-literary texts.Stylistics might thus seem to offer itself as an easily definable activity with specific functions and objectives: Stylistics enables us to identify and name the distinguishing features of literary texts, and to specify the generic and structural subdivisions of literature. But it is not as simple as this. When we use or respond to language in the real world our understanding of what the words mea n is supplemented by a vast number of contextual and situational issues: language is an enabling device; it allows us to articulate the sequence of choices, decisions, responses, acts and onsequences that make up our lives. Style will play some part in this, but its function is pragmatic and purposive: we might admire the lucid confidence of the car advertisement or the political broadcast, but in the end we will look beyond the words to the potential effect of their message upon our day to day activities. The style and language of poems, novels and plays will frequently involve these purposive functions, but when we look beyond their effect to their context we face a xii INTRODUCTION otentially disorientating relation between what happens in the text and what might happen outside it. Stylistics can tell us how to name the constituent parts of a literary text and enable us to document their operations, but in doing so it must draw upon the terminology and methodology of disciplines which focus upon language in the real world. The study of metre, narrative and dramatic dialogue is founded upon the fundamental units and principles of all linguistic usage: phonemes, rhythmic sequences, grammatical classes, forms of syntactic organization and so on.But these same fundamentals of communication also underpin the methodology of pure linguistics, structuralism and semiotics, discourse theory, sociolinguistics, gender studies, linguistic philosophy and a whole network of disciplines which involves the context and pragmatic purpose of communication. Consequently, modern stylistics is caught between two disciplinary imperatives. On the one hand it raises questions regarding the relation between the way that language is used and its apparent context and objective—language as an active element of the real world.On the other, it seeks to define the particular use of linguistic structures to create facsimiles, models or distortions of the real world—literary la nguage. This problematic relationship is the principal subject of this book. In Part I, I will consider the progress of modern stylistics from its origins in classical rhetoric to its function in modern literary studies. This will focus upon the tension between stylistics as a purely literary-critical discipline—its function in defining literature as an art form (which I call textualism)—and its operations within the broader field of structuralism and social studies (contextualism).Part II will re-examine this tension in relation to literary history: what is the relationship between literary style and historical context? Part III is a detailed study of two issues that feature in the margins of Parts I and II. ‘Gender and Evaluation’ will be concerned with the way in which the twin elements of feminist criticism and women writers relate to stylistics. INTRODUCTION xiii ‘Evaluative Stylistics’ will look at how the discipline of stylistics underp ins our subjective experience of reading. PART I A SHORT HISTORY OF STYLISTICS 1 RHETORIC The academic discipline of stylistics is a twentieth-century invention.It will be the purpose of this book to describe the aims and methods of stylistics, and we will begin by considering its relationship with its most notable predecessor —rhetoric. The term is derived from the Greek techne rhetorike, the art of speech, an art concerned with the use of public speaking as a means of persuasion. The inhabitants of Homer’s epics exploit and, more significantly, acknowledge the capacity of language to affect and determine nonlinguistic events, but it was not until the fifth century BC that the Greek settlers of Sicily began to study, document and teach rhetoric as a practical discipline.The best-known names are Corax and Tisias who found that, in an island beset with political and judicial disagreements over land and civil rights, the art of persuasion was a useful and profitable prof ession. Gorgias, one of their pupils, visited Athens as ambassador and he is generally regarded as the person responsible for piloting rhetoric beyond its judicial function into the spheres of philosophy and literary studies. Isocrates was the first to extend and promote the moral and ethical benefits of the art of speech, and one of Plato’s earliest Socratic dialogues bears the name Gorgias.It is with Plato that we encounter the most significant moment in the early history of rhetoric. In the Phaedrus Plato/Socrates states that unless a man pays due attention to philosophy ‘he will never RHETORIC 3 be able to speak properly about anything’ (261 A). ‘A real art of speaking†¦which does not seize hold of truth, does not exist and never will’ (260E). What concerned Plato was the fact that rhetoric was a device without moral or ethical subject matter.In the Gorgias he records an exchange between Socrates and Gorgias in which the former claims that p ersuasion is comparable with flattery, cooking and medicine: it meets bodily needs and satisfies physical and emotional desires. Rhetoric, he argues, is not an ‘art’ but a ‘routine’, and such a routine, if allowed to take hold of our primary communicative medium, will promote division, ambition and self-aggrandizement at the expense of collective truth and wisdom, the principal subjects of philosophy.Plato himself, particularly in the Phaedrus, does not go so far as to suggest the banning of rhetoric; rather he argues that it must be codified as subservient to the philosopher’s search for truth. Aristotle in his Rhetoric (c. 330 BC) produced the first counter-blast to Plato’s anti-rhetoric thesis. Rhetoric, argues Aristotle, is an art, a necessary condition of philosophical debate. To perceive the same fact or argument dressed in different linguistic forms is not immoral or dangerous.Such a recognition—that words can qualify or unsettle a single pre-linguistic truth—is part of our intellectual training, vital to any purposive reconciliation of appearance and reality. Aristotle meets the claim that rhetoric is socially and politically dangerous with the counterclaim that the persuasive power of speech is capable of pre-empting and superseding the violent physical manifestations of subjection and defence. The Plato-Aristotle exchange is not so much about rhetoric as an illustration of the divisive nature of rhetoric.It is replayed, with largely Aristotelian preferences, in the work of the two most prominent Roman rhetoricians, Cicero and Quintilian; it emerges in the writings of St Augustine and in Peter Ramus’s Dialectique (1555), one of the founding moments in the revival of classical rhetoric during the European Renaissance. Most significantly, it operates as 4 RHETORIC the theoretical spine which links rhetoric with modern stylistics, and stylistics in turn with those other constituents of the cont emporary discipline of humanities: linguistics, structuralism and poststructuralism.Plato and Aristotle did not disagree on what rhetoric is; their conflicts originated in the problematical relationship between language and truth. Rhetoric, particularly in Rome and in post-Renaissance education, had been taught as a form of super-grammar. It provides us with names and practical explanations of the devices by which language enables us to perform the various tasks of persuading, convincing and arguing. In an ideal world (Aristotle’s thesis) these tasks will be conducive to the personal and the collective good.The rhetorician will know the truth, and his linguistic strategies will be employed as a means of disclosing the truth. In the real world (Plato’s thesis) rhetoric is a weapon used to bring the listener into line with the argument which happens to satisfy the interests or personal affiliations of the speaker, neither of which will necessarily correspond with the tru th. These two models of rhetorical usage are equally valid and finally irreconcilable. Lies, fabrications, exaggerations are facts of language, but they can only be cited when the fissure between language and truth is provable.For example, if I were to tell you that I am a personal friend of Aristotle, known facts will be sufficient to convince you (unless you are a spiritualist) that I am not telling the truth. However, a statement such as, Aristotle speaks to me of the general usefulness of rhetoric’ is acceptable because it involves the use of a familiar rhetorical device (generally termed catachresis, the misuse or mis-application of a term): Aristotle does not literally speak to me, but my use of the term to imply that his written words involve the sincerity or the immediate relevance of speech is sanctioned by rhetorical-stylistic convention.What I have done is to use a linguistic device to distort prelinguistic truth and to achieve an emotive effect at the same time. M y reason for doing so would be to give a RHETORIC 5 supplementary persuasive edge to the specifics of my argument about the validity of Aristotle’s thesis. Such devices are part of the fabric of everyday linguistic exchange and, assuming that the hearer is as conversant as the speaker with the conventions of this rhetorical game, they are not, in Plato’s terms, immoral or dishonest.But for Plato such innocuous examples were merely a symptom of the much more serious consequences of rhetorical infection. The fact that Aristotle lived more than two millennia before me cannot be disputed, but the fabric of intellectual activity and its linguistic manifestation is only partly comprised of concrete facts. Morality, the existence of God, the nature of justice: all of these correspond with the verifiable specifics of human existence, but our opinions about them cannot be verified in direct relation to these specifics.The common medium shared by the abstract and the concrete di mensions of human experience is language and, as a consequence, language functions as the battleground for the tendentious activity of making the known correspond with the unknown, that speculative element of human existence that underpins all of our beliefs about the nature of truth, justice, politics and behaviour.Plato and Aristotle named the conditions of this conflict as dianoia and pragmata (thought and facts, otherwise known as res or content) and lexis and taxis (word choice and arrangement, otherwise known as verba or form), and the distinction raises two major problems that will occupy much of our attention throughout this book. First of all it can be argued that to make a distinction between language—in this instance the rhetorical organization of language—and the pre-linguistic continuum of thought, objects and events involves a fundamental error.Without language our experience of anything is almost exclusively internalized and private: we can, of course, m ake physical gestures, non-linguistic sounds or draw pictures, but these do not come close to the vast and complex network of signs and meanings shared by language users. The most important consequence of this condition of language 6 RHETORIC dependency is that we can never be certain whether the private world, the set of private experiences or beliefs, that language enables us to mediate is, as Plato and Aristotle argue, entirely independent of its medium.The governing precondition for any exchange of views about the nature of existence and truth—a process perfectly illustrated by Plato’s Socratic dialogues—is that language allows us to disclose the true nature of pre-linguistic fact. However, for such an exchange to take place at all each participant must submit to an impersonal system of rules and conventions. Before any disagreement regarding a fact or a principle can occur the combatants must first have agreed upon the relation between the fact/principle an d its linguistic enactment.An atheist and a Christian will have totally divergent perceptions of the nature of human existence, but both will know what the word ‘God’ means. The twentieth-century alternative to Aristotle’s and Plato’s distinction between dianoia/pragmata and lexis/taxis has been provided by Ferdinand de Saussure, a turn-of-thecentury linguist whose influence upon modern ideas about language and reality has become immeasurable.Saussure’s most quoted and influential propositions concern his distinction between the signified and the signifier and his pronouncement that ‘in language there are only differences without positive terms’. The signifier is the concrete linguistic sign, spoken or written, and the signified is the concept represented by the sign. A third element is the referent, the pre-linguistic object or condition that stands beyond the signifiersignified relationship. This tripartate function is, to say the lea st, unsteady.The atheist and the Christian will share a largely identical conception of the relation between ‘God’ (signifier) and ‘God’ (signified) but the atheist will regard this as a purely linguistic state, a fiction sustained by language, but without a referent. For such an individual the signifier God relates not to a specific signified and referent, but to other signifiers and signifieds— concepts of good and bad, eternity, omniscience, omnipotence, the whole network of signs which enables RHETORIC 7 Christian belief to intersect with other elements of the human condition.In Saussure’s terms, the signified ‘God’ is sustained by the differential relationship between itself and other words and concepts, and this will override its correspondence with a ‘positive term’ (the referent). Plato and Aristotle shared the premise that it is dangerous and immoral to talk about something that does not exist, and that it is the duty of the philosopher to disclose such improper fissures between language and its referent. Saussure’s model of language poses a threat to this ideal by raising the possibility that facts and thoughts might, to an extent, be constructs of the system of language.The relation between classical philosophy/rhetoric and Saussurean linguistics is far more complicated than my brief comparison might suggest, but it is certain that Saussure makes explicit elements of the divisive issue of whether rhetoric is a potentially dangerous practice. And this leads us to a second problem: the relationship between language and literature. Plato in The Republic has much to say about literature—which at the time consisted of poetry in its dramatic or narrative forms.In Book 10 an exchange takes place regarding the nature of imitation and representation: the subject is ostensibly art, but the originary motive is as usual the determining of the nature of truth. By the end of the dialo gue Socrates has established a parallel hierarchy of media and physical activities. The carpenter makes the actual bed, but the idea or concept behind this act of creation is God’s. The painter is placed at the next stage down in this creative hierarchy: he can observe the carpenter making the bed and dutifully record this process.The poet, it seems, exists in a somewhat ambiguous relation to this column of originators, makers and imitators. Perhaps they [poets] may have come across imitators and been deceived by them; they may not have remembered when they saw their works that these were but imitations thrice removed from the truth, and could easily be made without any knowledge of the 8 RHETORIC truth, because they are appearances only and not realities. (1888:312) In short, the poet is capable of unsettling the hierarchy which sustains the clear relation between appearance and reality.Poets, as Aristotle and Plato recognized, are pure rhetoricians: they work within a kind of metalanguage which draws continuously upon the devices of rhetoric but which is not primarily involved in the practical activities of argument and persuasion. As the above quote suggests, they move disconcertingly through the various levels of creation, imitation and deception, and as Plato made clear, such fickle mediators were not the most welcome inhabitants in a Republic founded upon a clear and unitary correspondence between appearance and reality.Plato’s designation of literature as a form which feeds upon the devices of more practical and purposive linguistic discourses, but whose function beyond a form of whimsical diversion is uncertain, has for two millenia been widely debated but has remained the dominant thesis. During the English Renaissance there was an outpouring of largely practical books on the proper use of rhetoric and rhetorical devices: for example R. Sherry’s A Treatise of Schemes and Tropes (1550), T. Wilson’s The Arte of Rhetorique (15 53), R. Rainolde’s A Book Called the Foundation of Rhetorike (1563), H.Peacham’s The Garden of Eloquence (1577) and G. Puttenham’s The Arte of English Poesie (1589). These were aimed at users of literary and non-literary language, but a distinction was frequently made between the literary and the non-literary function of rhetoric. In George Puttenham’s The Arte of English Poesie we find that there are specific regulations regarding the correspondence between literary style and subject (derived chiefly from Cicero’s distinction between the grand style, the middle style and the low, plain or simple style).The crossing of recommended style-subject borders was regarded as bad writing, but a far more serious offence would be committed RHETORIC 9 if the most extravagant rhetorical, and by implication literary, devices were transplanted into the serious realms of non-literary exchange. Metaphors or ‘figures’ are, according to Puttenham, parti cularly dangerous. ‘For what else is your Metaphor but an inversion of sense by transport; your allegorie by a duplicitie of meaning or dissimulation under covert and darke intendments’ (1589:158).Judges, for example, forbid such extravagances because they distort the truth: This no doubt is true and was by then gravely considered; but in this case, because our maker or Poet is appointed not for a judge, but rather for a pleader, and that of pleasant and lovely causes and nothing perillous, such as be for the triall of life, limme, or livelihood†¦they [extravagant metaphors] are not in truth to be accompted vices but for vertues in the poetical science very commendable. (ibid. : 161)Poetry does of course involve ‘perillous’ matters, but what Puttenham means is that the poetic function is not instrumental in activities concerned with actual ‘life, limme, or livelihood’. As a spokesman for the Renaissance consensus Puttenham shows that the P lato/Aristotle debate regarding the dangers of rhetoric, especially in its literary manifestation, has been shelved rather than resolved: in short, Puttenham argues that in literature it is permissible to distort reality because literature is safely detached from the type of discourse that might have some purposive effect upon the real conditions of its participants.What Puttenham said in 1589 remains true today: literary and non-literary texts might share a number of stylistic features but literary texts do not belong in the same category of functional, purposive language as the judicial ruling or the theological tract. This begs a question which modern stylistics, far more than rhetoric, has sought to address. How do we judge the difference between literary and non-literary discourses? We 10 RHETORIC ave not finished with rhetoric, but in order to properly consider the two issues raised by it—the relation between language and non-linguistic reality and the difference betwee n literary and non-literary texts—we should now begin to examine its far more slippery and eclectic modern counterpart. 2 STYLISTICS AND MODERN CRITICISM Two groups of critics have had a major influence on the identity and direction of twentieth-century English studies: the Russian and central European Formalists and the more disparate collection of British and American teachers and writers whose academic careers began during the 1920s and 1930s.The term New Criticism is often applied to the latter group. The objectives of the majority of individuals in each group were the same: to define literature as a discourse and art form and to establish its function as something that can be properly studied. Until the late 1950s the work of these groups remained within mutually exclusive geographical and academic contexts: the New Critics in Britain and America and the Formalists in Europe. During the 1960s New Criticism and Formalism began to recognize similarities and overlaps in the ir goals and methods.Since the 1960s their academic predominance has been unsettled by a much broader network of interdisciplinary practices: structuralism, poststructuralism, feminism and new historicism, are all significant elements of contemporary literary studies, and each draws its methodologies and expectations from intellectual fields beyond the traditional, enclosed realms of rhetoric and aesthetics. This, I concede, is a simplified history of twentiethcentury criticism, but it provides us with a framework for an understanding of how rhetoric has been variously transformed into modern stylistics.The New Critics and the Formalists are the most obvious inheritors of the disciplines 12 STYLISTICS AND MODERN CRITICISM of rhetoric, in the sense that they have maintained a belief in the empirical difference between literature and other types of language and have attempted to specify this difference in terms of style and effect. Structuralism at once extended and questioned these p ractices by concentrating on the similarities, rather than the differences, between literature and other discourses.Poststructuralism took this a stage further by introducing the reader into the relation between literary and non-literary style, and posing the question of whether the expectations of the perceiver can determine, rather than simply disclose, stylistic effects and meanings. Feminist critics have examined style less as an enclosed characteristic of a particular text and more as a reflection of the sociocultural hierarchies—predominantly male—which control stylistic habits and methods of interpretation.Similarly, Marxists and new historicists concern themselves with style as an element of the more important agenda of cultural and ideological change and mutation. For the sake of convenience I shall divide these different approaches to stylistics into two basic categories: textualist and contextualist. The Formalists and New Critics are mainly textualists in t hat they regard the stylistic features of a particular literary text as productive of an empirical unity and completeness. They do not perceive literary style as entirely exclusive to literature—rhythm is an element of all spoken language, and narrative features in ordinary onversation—but when these stylistic features are combined so as to dominate the fabric of a text, that text is regarded as literature. Contextualism involves a far more loose and disparate collection of methods. Its unifying characteristic is its concentration on the relation between text and context. Some structuralists argue that the stylistic features of poetry draw upon the same structural frameworks that enable us to distinguish between modes of dress or such social rituals as eating.Some feminists regard literary style as a means of securing attitudes and hierarchies that, in the broader context, maintain the difference between male and female roles. STYLISTICS AND MODERN CRITICISM 13 The rem ainder of this Part is divided into three chapters. The first two will examine in basic terms how modern criticism has employed stylistics to evolve theories of poetry and fiction: these chapters will be concerned predominantly with textualist method and practice. Chapter 5 is more concerned with contextualism and will consider the ways in which the interface between text and context can unsettle textualist assumptions. TEXTUALISM I: POETRY The first part of this chapter will give brief definitions, with examples, of the devices and linguistic elements that constitute the stylistic character of post-medieval English poetry: prosody and poetic form; metre; rhyme and the stanza; the sonnet; the ode; blank verse; free verse; metaphor; syntax, diction and vocabulary. Following this is a section on critical methods, which will include examples of how the listed devices and linguistic elements are deployed by critics in their attempts to show how poetic style creates particular meanings a nd effects.PROSODY AND POETIC FORM The most basic and enduring definition of poetry is that the poem, unlike any other assembly of words, supplements the use of grammar and syntax with another system of organization: the poetic line. The poetic line draws upon the same linguistic raw material as the sentence but deploys and uses this in a different way. Our awareness of the grammatical rules which govern the way that words are formed into larger units of meaning is based on our ability to recognize the difference between individual words.Words are made up of sound and stress, identified respectively by the phoneme and the syllable. The function of sound and stress in non-poetic language is functional and utilitarian: before we understand the operative relation between nouns, verbs, adjectives and TEXTUALISM I: POETRY 15 connectives we need to be able to relate the sound and structure of a word to its meaning. Traditional poetry uses stress and sound not only as markers and indicator s of meaning but also as a way of measuring and foregrounding the principal structural characteristic of the poem: the line.In most poems written before the twentieth-century the line is constructed from a combination of two or more of the following elements: †¢ A specified and predictable number of syllables. The most commonly used example of this is the ten-syllable line, the pentameter. †¢ A metrical pattern consisting of the relation between the stress or emphasis of adjacent syllables. The most frequently used metrical pattern in English involves the use of the iambic foot, where an emphatic syllable follows a less emphatic one, with occasional variations, or ‘stress reversals’. †¢ Rhyme.The repetition of the phonemic sound of a single syllable at the end of a line. †¢ Assonance and alliteration. The repetition of clusters of similar vowel or consonant sounds within individual lines and across sequences of lines. The persistent and predictable d eployment of two or more of these features is what allows us to recognize the traditional line as an organizing feature of most pre-twentieth-century poems. METRE The iambic pentameter, consisting of ten syllables with the even syllables stressed more emphatically than the odd, is the most frequently used line in English poetry.It is the governing principle of Shakespeare’s blank verse; of nondramatic blank verse poems, including John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667) and William Wordsworth’s Prelude, and of the heroic couplet, the structural centrepiece of most 16 TEXTUALISM I: POETRY (from Milton’s Paradise Lost) (from Swift’s ‘Cassinus and Peter’) of the poems of John Dryden and Alexander Pope. Examples of its shorter version, the octosyllabic line or tetrameter can be found in many of the couplet poems of Swift, in Matthew Arnolds ‘Stanzas from the Grand Chartreuse’ (1885), and in Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s In Memoriam (1850).The iambic pentameter consists of five iambic feet, its tetrameter counterpart of four. The following are examples of these, with ‘indicating the most emphatic and—the less emphatic syllables. These are examples of stress-syllabic metre, in which a consistent balance is maintained between the number of syllables of a line and its stress pattern. Alternative stresssyllabic lines include seven-syllable tetrameters (see William Blake’s ‘The Tyger’), which are comprised of three iambic feet and a single stressed syllable,Lines such as this, with an odd number of syllables, can also be scanned as trochaic The trochaic foot more frequently features as a substitute or variation in a line of iambic feet. This occurs in the first foot of Shakespeare’s line: Stress-syllabic lines consisting of three-syllable feet are generally associated with comic poetry and song. The threesyllable foot creates a rhythmic pattern that deviates from the modulati on of ordinary speech far more than its twosyllable counterpart; as in Oliver Goldsmith’s couplet, consisting of anapestic (––/)feet. TEXTUALISM I: POETRY 17Some poems vary the syllabic length of a line, while maintaining the same number of emphatic or stressed syllables in each. This is called pure stress metre. An early example of pure stress metre is Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s ‘Christabel’ (1816) and a more recent one occurs in T. S. Eliot’s ‘Ash Wednesday’ (1930), in which the differing length of each line is anchored to a repeated pattern of two major stresses. Lady of si ences Calm and distressed Torn and most whole Rose of memory The internal structure of the poetic line is only one element of its function as the organizing principle of poetry.RHYME AND THE STANZA Rhyme binds lines together into larger structural units. The smallest of these is the couplet, rhyming aa bb cc (as in the majority of poems by Dryden, Pop e and Jonathan Swift). More complex rhyme schemes enable the poet to create stanzas, the simplest of these being the quatrain, rhyming ab ab. (The octosyllabic quatrain is used by John Donne in ‘The Ecstasy and its pentameter counter-part in Thomas Grays ‘Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard’(1751). The stanza can play a number of roles in the broader structure of the poem.Narrative poems, which tell a story, often use the stanza as a way of emphasizing a particular event or observation while tying this into the broader narrative (as in Edmund Spenser’s long The Faerie Queene, John Keats’s The Eve of St Agnes and Lord Byron’s Don 18 TEXTUALISM I: POETRY Juan). Tennyson’s In Memoriam uses the socalled ‘envelope stanza (a b b a). This couplet within a couplet provides a formal counterpoint to the tragic or emotional focus of each stanza. Shorter, lyric poems which focus on a specific sensation, feeling or single event often use the stanza as a counterpoint to improvisation and spontaneity.Donne’s ‘The Relic’ consists of three very complicated stanzas. 8 8 8 8 6 10 7 10 10 10 10 syllables syllables syllables syllables syllables syllables syllables syllables syllables syllables syllables When my grave is broke up again Some second guest to entertain, (For graves have learned that woman-head To be to more than one a bed) And he that digs it spies A bracelet of bright hair about the bone, Will he not let us alone And think that there a loving couple lies, Who thought that this device might be some way To make their souls, at the last busy day Meet at this grave, and make a little stay?On the one hand the complex permutations of line length and rhyme scheme create the impression of flexibility and improvisation, as if the metrical structure of the poem is responding to and following the varied emphases of speech. But this stanzaic structure is repeated, with admirable precision, three times; an d as we read the poem in its entirety we find that the flexibility of the syntax is matched by the insistent inflexibility of the stanza. THE SONNET The sonnet resembles the stanza in that it consists of an ntegrated unit of metre and rhyme: the Shakespearian sonnet consisting of three iambic pentameter quatrains followed by an iambic pentameter couplet, its Petrarchan counterpart rhyming abba abba cdc dcd. It differs from the stanza in that TEXTUALISM I: POETRY 19 the sonnet is a complete poem. Most sonnets will emphasize a particular event or theme and tie this into the symmetries, repetitions and parallels of its metrical and rhyming structure. THE ODE The most flexible and variable stanzaic form will be found in the ode. Wordsworth’s ‘Ode on Intimations of Immortality’ consists of eleven sections.Each of these has a pattern of metre and rhyme just as complex and varied as Donne’s stanza in ‘The Relic’, except that in the ‘Immortality Ode’ the same pattern is never repeated. The open, flexible structure of the ode is well suited to its use, especially by the Romantic poets, as a medium for personal reflection; it rarely tells a particular story, and it eschews logical and systematic argument in favour of an apparently random sequence of questions, hypotheses and comparisons. BLANK VERSE A form which offers a similar degree of freedom from formal regularity is blank verse, consisting of unrhymed iambic pentameters.Prior to Milton’s Paradise Lost blank verse was regarded as a mixture of poetry and prose. It was thought appropriate only for drama, in which language could be recognizably poetic (i. e. metrical) while maintaining realistic elements of dialogue and ordinary speech (without rhyme). Paradise Lost offered blank verse as an alternative to the use of the stanza or the couplet in longer narrative or descriptive poems. Milton’s blank verse creates a subtle tension between the iambic patt ern of each line and the broader flow across lines of descriptive or impassioned speech (see below, pp. 28–9, for an example).A similar balance between discursive or reflective language and the metrical undertow of the blank verse line is found in the eighteenth-century tradition of landscape poems (see James Thomson’s The Seasons and 20 TEXTUALISM I: POETRY William Cowper’s The Task) and in Wordsworth’s ‘Tintern Abbey’ and The Prelude. The most flexible examples of blank verse, where it becomes difficult to distinguish between prose rhythm and metre, are found in the poems of Robert Browning, particularly The Ring and the Book (1868– 9): So Did I stand question and make answer, still With the same result of smiling disbelief, Polite impossibility of faith.FREE VERSE Before the twentieth-century, poems which involved neither rhyme nor the metrical pattern of blank verse were rare. Christopher Smart’s Jubilate Agno (1756) and Wal t Whitman’s Leaves of Grass (1855) replaced traditional metre with patterns redolent of biblical phrasing and intonation, and Blake in his later visionary poems (1789– 1815) devised a very individual form of free verse. It was not until this century that free verse became an established part of the formal repertoire of English poetry. Free verse (from the French vers libre) is only free in the sense that it does not conform to traditional patterns of metre and rhyme.The poetic line is maintained as a structural counterpoint to syntax, but is not definable in abstract metrical terms. Free verse can be divided into three basic categories: 1. Poetry which continues and extends the least restrictive elements of traditional poetry, particularly those of the ode and blank verse. T. S. Eliot’s ‘The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’ (1917) is a monologue with an unpredictable rhyme scheme and a rhythmic structure that invokes traditional metre but refuses to maintain a regular beat or pattern. A similar effect is achieved in TEXTUALISM I: POETRY 21 W. H. Auden’s ‘Musee des Beaux Arts’.In The Four Quartets (1935–42) Eliot often uses an unrhymed form that resembles blank verse, of which the following, from the beginning of ‘Little Gidding’, is an example: M dwinter spr ng is its o n season Sempiternal though sodden towards s ndown, Suspended in ti e, between pole and tropic. The lines of the poem vary between 9 and 13 syllables. Regular metre is replaced by the distribution of three to five major stresses across each line. Although the lines cannot be scanned according to expectations of regularity they do create the impression that Eliot is giving special attention to rhythmic structure. . Poems in which the line structure reflects the apparent spontaneity of ordinary speech, where, unlike in ‘Little Gidding’, no concessions are made to a metrical undertow. Line divisions will often b e used as an imitation of the process through which we transform thoughts, impressions and experiences into language. Easthope (1983) calls this form ‘intonational metre’. A typical example of this is D. H. Lawrence’s ‘Snake’. A snake came to my water-trough On a hot, hot day, and I in pyjamas for the heat, To drink there. 3.Poems in which the unmetrical line variously obstructs, deviates from or interferes with the movement of syntax. In Ezra Pound’s ‘In a Station of the Metro’ the two lines function as an alternative to the continuities of grammar. The apparition of those faces in the crowd Petals on a wet black bough. 22 TEXTUALISM I: POETRY The space between the lines could be filled by a variety of imagined connecting phrases: ‘are like’, ‘are unlike’, ‘remind me of’, ‘are as lonely as’. Individual lines offer specific images or impressions: the reader makes connections betw een them.In William Carlos Williams’s ‘Spring and All’ the line structure orchestrates the syntax and creates a complex network of hesitations and progressions, and for an example of this turn to pp. 154–7. The most extreme example of how the free verse line can appropriate and disrupt the structural functions of syntax will be found in the poems of e. e. cummings, where the linear movement of language is effectively broken down into visual units. The best, brief guide to the mechanics of prosody and metre is Hobsbaum’s Metre, Rhythm and Verse Form (1996).A more methodical survey of linguistics and poetic form is Bradford’s A Linguistic History of English Poetry (1993). T. V. F. Brogan’s English Versification 1570–1980 (1981) provides a comprehensive annotated bibliography of works on all types of metre and verse form. METAPHOR Metaphor is derived from the Greek verb that means ‘to carry over’. When words are used m etaphorically, one field of reference is carried over or transferred into another. Wordsworth (in ‘Resolution and Independence’) states that ‘The sky rejoices in the morning’s birth. ’ He carries over two ery human attributes to the non-human phenomena of the sky and the morning: the ability to rejoice and to give birth. I. A. Richards (1936) devised a formula that enables us to specify the process of carrying over. The ‘tenor’ of the metaphor is its principal subject, the topic addressed: in Wordsworth’s line the tenor is the speaker’s perception of the sky and the morning. The ‘vehicle’ is the analogue or the subject carried over from another field of reference to that of TEXTUALISM I: POETRY 23 the subject: in Wordsworth’s line the activities of rejoicing and giving birth.Metaphor is often referred to as a poetic device but it is not exclusive to poetry. Metaphors will be found in newspaper articles o n economics: ‘The war [vehicle] against inflation [tenor]’; in ordinary conversation: ‘At yesterdays meeting [tenor] I broke the ice [vehicle]’; in novels: ‘He cowered in the shadow [vehicle] of the thought [tenor]’ (James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man); and in advertisements: ‘This car is as good on paper [vehicle] as it is on the road [tenor]’. The principal difference between Wordsworth’s metaphor and its non-poetic counterparts is its integration with the iambic pentameter.We could retain the metaphor and lose the metre; turn it into the kind of unmetrical sentence that might open a short story or a novel: ‘I watched the sky rejoice in the birth of the morning. ’ One thing lost is the way in which the pentameter organizes and emphasizes the tenor and vehicle of the metaphor—sky r joic s and mor ing’s bi th. In order to properly consider differences between poetic and no n-poetic uses of metaphor we should add a third element to tenor and vehicle: the ground of the metaphor (see Leech, 1969:151).The ground is essentially the context and motivation of the metaphor. For the journalist the ground of the metaphor is the general topic of economics and inflation and the particular point that he/she is attempting to make about these issues. For the conversationalist the ground is the awareness, shared with the addressee, of yesterday’s meeting and his/her role in it. For the advertiser the ground involves the rest of the advertisement, giving details of the make, price and performance of the car, and the general context in which cars are discussed and sold.In non-poetic uses of metaphor the ground or context stabilizes the relation between tenor and vehicle. The metaphor will involve a self-conscious 24 TEXTUALISM I: POETRY departure from the routine and familiar relationship between language and reality. It would be regarded as bizarre and mildly d isturbing if the conversationalist were to allow the original metaphor to dominate the rest of his/her discourse: ‘I sank through the broken ice into the cold water of the boardroom. There we all were: fishes swimming through a dark hostile world†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢.In poems, however, this relation between ground, tenor and vehicle is often reversed. It is the language of the poem, as much as the reader’s a priori knowledge, which creates its perceived situation and context. It constructs its own ground, and metaphor becomes less a departure from contextual terms and conditions and more a device which appropriates and even establishes them. In John Donne’s ‘The Flea’ the tenor is the insect itself and the bite it has inflicted on the male speaker and the female listener.The speaker carries over this tenor into such an enormous diversity of vehicles that it becomes difficult to distinguish between the ground outside the words of the text and the ground whi ch the text appropriates and continually transforms. This flea is you and I, and this Our marriage bed and marriage temple is. We know that ‘this flea is the tenor, but the relation between tenor and ground becomes less certain with ‘is you and I’. On the one hand it is literally part of them since it has sucked and mixed their blood.On the other the speaker has already incorporated this image of physical unity into a vehicle involving their emotional and sexual lives. He builds on this with the vehicle of the ‘marriage bed’ and extends it into an image of spiritual, external unity in the ‘marriage temple’. Throughout the poem the flea and the bite become gradually detached from their actual context and threaded into a chain of speculative and fantastic associations. In ordinary language metaphor usually stands out from the rest of the discursive or factual nature of the statement. In TEXTUALISM I: POETRY 25 oetry a particular use of meta phor will often underpin and influence the major themes of the entire text. Donne’s ‘The Ecstasy’ opens with a simile (the bank ‘is like’ a pillow, rather than ‘is’ a pillow) but thereafter maintains a close, metaphoric, relation between tenor and vehicle, Where, like a pillow on a bed, A pregnant bank swelled up to rest The violet’s reclining head Sat we two, one another’s best; The tenor is the garden in which ‘we two’ are situated; the vehicle is a combination of images denoting intimacy and sexuality: pillow, bed, pregnant, swelled up, the violets (flower, denoting female) reclining head.This opening instance of the carrying over of rural horticultural images into the sphere of human sexuality becomes the predominant theme of the entire poem, underpinning more adventurous speculations on the nature of the soul. Again the dynamics of contrasting and associating verbal images has unsettled the stabilizing fun ction of ground or context.Donne is one of the so-called metaphysical school of poetic writers whose taste for extended metaphor is a principal characteristic of their verse, but the practice of creating tensions and associations between the words and images of the poem at the expense of an external context transcends schools, fashions and historical groupings. In Keats’s ‘Ode to a Nightingale’ the image of the real bird becomes a springboard for a complex sequence of associations and resonances: song, poetry, immortality, age, youth, death.The sense of there being a specific place and time in which Keats saw the bird and heard its song is gradually replaced by the dynamics of Keats’s associative faculties: the relation between the vehicles unsettles the relation between vehicle and tenor. The following is from the beginning of stanza 3: 26 TEXTUALISM I: POETRY Fade far away, dissolve, and quite forget What thou among the leaves hast never known, The weari ness, the fever, and the fret Here, where men sit and hear each other groan; The principal vehicle is Keats’s transformation of the bird into an apparently ratiocinative, cognitive addressee, who understands his words.This at the same time is unsettled by his constant return to the commonsense tenor of a bird without human faculties. The dynamic tension here becomes evident in Keats’s contradictory request that the nightingale should ‘forget’ those human qualities or frailties which, as he concedes in the next line, it had never and could never have known. A classic case of vehicle undermining tenor occurs in T. S. Eliot’s The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’ (lines 15–22).This begins with the tenor (the city fog) being carried over into the vehicle of an unspecified animal which ‘rubs its back upon the window-panes’, ‘rubs its muzzle on the window-panes’, ‘Licked its tongue into the corners of the eveni ng’. By the end of the passage the actual vision of city streets which inspired the comparison has been overtaken by the physical presence of this strange beast, which ‘seeing that it was a soft October night,/Curled once about the house, and fell asleep’. Metaphor is the most economical, adventurous and concentrated example of the general principle of ‘carrying over’.Samuel Johnson defined metaphor in his Dictionary (1755) as ‘a simile compressed in a word’. Donne’s metaphor (from ‘The Relic’), ‘a bracelet of bright hair about the bone’, would, as a simile, be something like: ‘the brightness of the hair about the bone reminds me of the difference between life and death’. Simile postulates the comparison: X is like Y. Metaphor synthesizes the comparison: X is Y. Metonymy is logical metaphor, in which the comparison is founded upon an actual, verifiable relation between objects or impressions: ‘crown is used instead of TEXTUALISM I: POETRY 27 ‘king’, ‘queen’ or ‘royalty’.Allegory involves an extended parallel between a narrative and a subtext which mirrors the relation between the text and reality. Spenser’s The Faerie Queen (1590–6) is a medieval fantasy with allegorical parallels in the real world of the Elizabethan court. Simile, metonymy and allegory establish a balanced relationship between the use of language and conventional perceptions of reality, and occur as frequently in non-poetic discourse as in poetry. Metaphor involves language in an unbalancing of perceptions of reality and is more closely allied to the experimental character of poetry.SYNTAX, DICTION AND VOCABULARY The terms ‘poetic diction’ and ‘poetic syntax’ should be treated with caution. Any word, clause, phrase, grammatical habit or locution used in non-poetic language can be used in poetry. But their presence with in the poem will subtly alter their familiar non-poetic function. For example, in Donne’s ‘The Flea’ the speaker reflects upon the likely objections to his proposal to the woman: Though parents grudge, and you, we are met And cloistered in these living walls of jet. We might explain the use of the phrase ‘and you’ as a result of hurried and improvised speech. ‘Though you and your parents grudge’ would be a more correct form. ) But the fact that the placing of the phrase maintains the movement of the iambic metre and the symmetry of the two lines of the couplet shows us that the speech is anything but improvised. The metrical structure of a poem can accommodate the apparent hesitations and spontaneities of ordinary speech, but at the same time fix them as parts of a carefully structured artefact. Consider what happens when syntax crosses the space between two poetic lines, an effect known 28 TEXTUALISM I: POETRY s enjambment. A classic ex ample of this occurs in the opening lines of Milton’s Paradise Lost Of Man’s first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste The implied pause at the line ending might suggest, on Milton’s part, a slight moment of indecision: is he thinking of the figurative ‘fruit’ (that is, the result and consequences) of man’s disobedience, or the literal fruit of the act of disobedience? He chooses the latter. The placing of the word might also be interpreted as the complete opposite of fleeting indecision.The tension between the actuality of the fruit and the uncertain consequences of eating it is a fundamental theme of the poem, and Milton encodes this tension within the form of the poem even before its narrative begins. In non-poetic language the progress of syntax can be influenced by a number of external factors: an act or verbal interruption by someone else, the uncertainty of the speaker or the fraught circumstances of the speech act: known in stylistics as the pragmatic or functional registers of language.For example, conversations often consist of broken, incomplete syntactic units because both speakers are contributing to the same discourse, which will also involve a shared non-verbal frame of reference: ‘Look at this, its†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ ‘Well, it’s big enough’, ‘Whoa, sorry. ’ ‘It’s OK, it’ll clean up. ’ In poetry apparent hesitations or disturbances of syntax are a function of the carefully planned, integrated structure of the text. The ability of poetry to absorb and recontextualize the devices and registers of non-poetic language is evident also in its use of diction, vocabulary, and phrasing.The social or local associations of particular words or locutionary habits TEXTUALISM I: POETRY 29 can be carried into a poem but their familiar context will be transformed by their new structural framework. In Tony Harrison’s V ( 1985) the poet converses in a Leeds cemetery with an imagined skinhead whose hobbies include the spraying of graffiti on to gravestones: ‘Listen cunt! ’ I said, ‘Before you start your jeering The reason why I want this in a book ’s to give ungrateful cunts like you a hearing! ’ A book, yer stupid cunts not worth a fuck.The diction and idiom of both speakers is working class and Northern, but this specific, locative resonance is itself contained within a separate language, with its own conventions: each regional idiomatic flourish is confidently, almost elegantly, reconciled to the demands of the iambic pentameter and the quatrain. The realistic crudity of the language is juxtaposed with the controlled irony of Harrison’s formal design: the skinhead’s real presence is appropriated to the unreal structure of the poem, involving the internal and external rhymes, ‘book’ and ‘fuck’.In a broader context, the language of working-class Leeds is integrated with the same stanzaic structure used by Gray in his ‘Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard’, in which the poet similarly appropriates the voice of a ‘hoary-headed swain’. Haply some hoary-headed swain may say, ‘Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn Brushing with hasty steps the dews away To meet the sun upon the upland lawn.Gray’s and Harrison’s language and experience are centuries and worlds apart—the diction of the hoary-headed individual is rather more delicate than that of his skinheaded counterpart—but their differences are counterpointed against their enclosure within the same ahistorical stanzaic framework. 30 TEXTUALISM I: POETRY This tendency for poetry to represent and at the same time colonize the habits of non-poetic discourse is a paradox that has taxed poets and critics—most famously in Wordsworth’s Preface to Lyrical Ballads (1798).Wordsworth rails agai nst the stultifying poeticization of ordinary language, of how the conventions and style of eighteenth-century verse had dispossessed poetry of the ‘real language of men’. But while he advocates a new kind of poetic writing he concedes that poetry must announce its difference in a way that will ‘entirely separate the composition from the vulgarity and meanness of ordinary life’. In short, although poetry should be about ‘ordinary life’ it must by its very nature be separate from it. D. H.Lawrence’s poems in the Nottinghamshire dialect, Robert Burns’s and Hugh MacDiarmid’s use of Scots idiom, grammar and diction emphasize region and very often class, but no matter where the words come from or what social or political affiliations they carry, they are always appropriated and acted upon by the internal structures of poetry. Wordsworth’s desire to separate poetry from the Vulgarity and meanness of ordinary life’ s ounds suspiciously elitist and exclusive, and there is evidence of this in the work of a number of our most celebrated poets.In Part II of The Waste Land (1922) Eliot represents the speech patterns and, so he assumes, the concerns of working-class women: Now Albert’s coming back, make yourself a bit smart. He’ll want to know what you done with that money he gave you To get yourself some teeth. We will be expected to note the difference between this passage and the sophisticated command of metre and multicultural references of the poem’s principal male voice, Tiresias. With whom would we associate T. S. Eliot? Tiresias or the women?The sense of poetry as carrying social and political allegiances (principally male, white, English, middle class, TEXTUALISM I: POETRY 31 educated) has prompted acts of stylistic revolution. William Carlos Williams in the free verse of Spring and All and Paterson (1946–58) effectively discards those conventions of rhyme and metr e that restrict his use of ordinary American phrasing and vocabulary (see pp. 154–7 for examples). Linton Kwesi Johnson makes the structure of his poems respond to the character of his language. But love is just a word; give it MEAN IN thruHACKSHAN. ‘MEANIN’ and ‘HACKSHAN’ are words appropriated from ‘standard’ English by West Indians, and the fact that Johnson has used poetry to emphasize their ownership is significant. The unusual concentrations and foregroundings of poetry can unsettle just as much as they can underpin the allegiances and ideologies of diction and vocabulary. CRITICAL METHODS So far I have considered three principal characteristics of poetry and the